Middle English I (Historical Overview)



  1. Norman Conquest, 1066-1200
    1. The Normans
        1. Settled by Scandinavians in ninth and tenth centuries. By the eleventh c., Norman culture was essentially French culture.
        2. The Normans had much contact with the English, especially during the reign of Edward the Confessor.
    2. Battle of Hastings, 1066
        1. When Edward the Confessor died without a direct male heir, Harold, son of the powerful Earl Godwin, was elected king. William the Great (son of Robert the Devil) challenged the claim; he was distantly related to Edward and supposedly Edward had promised to name him his heir.
        2. William assembled an army, and sailed to England. Harold had been repelling an attack on the north coast by another claimant to the throne (from Norway), so his troops were weakened and distant. The English met the Normans at Hastings, but Harold was killed by an arrow through the eye.
        3. Bayeux Tapestry


  2. Consequences of the New Nobility
    1. English nobility was almost entirely displaced
        1. Many nobles had been killed at Hastings; the remainder were systematically eliminated during the subsequent consolidation of William's power.
        2. Some estimate that 20,000 English were replaced by 20,000 Normans. The newcomers were in charge of country, earldoms, bishoprics, abbacies, most of the big estates, and many of the burgess holdings (chief towns).
    2. Use of French by the ruling class
        1. The new ruling class used French as the official language of the court, of the university, and eventually of law.
        2. Before long, the distinction between those who knew French and those who didn't was largely social, not ethnic.
    3. Attitudes toward English
        1. Contrary to some popular opinion, there was no active suppression of English
        2. Many Normans found it necessary to learn English in order to communicate with their subjects. Yet, history provides plenty of examples of people who controlled the English without ever bothering to learn the language.
    4. French as the language of literature
        1. By the early 12th century, considerable literature was being produced in England but written in French; e.g., Marie de France.
        2. At the same time, there was obviously some demand for works created in English and apparently for the English-speaking populace.
    5. Decline of the mustache




  1. Reestablishment of English, 1200-1500
    1. Loss of Normandy
        1. King John lost Normandy in 1204
        2. In 1337 the Hundred Years War began in an attempt to reclaim it.
    2. Separation of French and English Nobility
        1. Prior to the surrender of Rouen, many nobility in England owned estates in both countries and were uncertain to whom they owed primary allegiance.
        2. By 1250, the nobility of England considered itself only English.
    3. Use of French declined by the end of the 13th century
        1. Laws in the early 13th c. required university students to write and converse in Latin or French
        2. English French was considered provincial; cf. Chaucer's Prioress


  2. English in Law Courts, 1362


  3. English in the Schools, 1349


  4. Use of English in Writing
    1. Importance of Written Language to a Culture
        1. Latin had been the primary written language
        2. It was later supplemented by French, shortly after the Norman Invasion (use of French in writing peaked around 1350).
    2. Henry V (1413-1422) promoted written English
        1. Some speculate that Henry's victories (at Agincourt and elsewhere) helped English nationalism and pride in things English.
        2. By the fifteenth century, English became the main written language of England. By 1450 most letters between individuals and wills are in English.